The Musical Staff and Clefs

            

            Musical notation is written on a collection of horizontal lines (and the spaces between those lines) called a staff.  There are five lines and four spaces on a single staff.  Each line and space can be used to represent a letter of the musical alphabet.  Theoretically, there is an infinite number of lines and spaces in music.  However, we use a five lined staff to achieve the ultimate compromise: a staff that fits well on a piece of sheet music and represents the main pitches within an instrument’s range.  Pitches that extend beyond the range of the staff are expressed using ledger lines.  These are additional lines that are drawn in to depict the distance that the pitch extends beyond the given staff.    

The specific five lines and four spaces being listed on a particular staff are identified by a special label which is placed at the front of the staff.  This label is called a clef, and there are several different types of clefs.  Each clef symbol highlights one of the five lines as being a specific pitch.  Once this line is labeled, the other lines and spaces can be filled in.  The various pitch ranges of different clefs allow us to select the five lines that best reflect the pitch range of the instrument that we are composing for.

There are three main clef symbols used to create the various clefs.  One is the G-clef symbol.  The bottom portion of this symbol labels the pitch G4 by circling the line that represents this pitch.  G4 is the G that is located directly above middle C.  

Another is the C-clef symbol.  The center portion of this symbol creates a bracket that labels the line which represents the pitch middle C.  

The third is the F-clef symbol.  This symbol contains two dots that occupy the space above and below the line that represents the pitch F3.  F3 is the F that is directly below middle C.

These three clef symbols can be placed in various positions on the five lines of the musical staff to create a variety of musical clefs.  There are nine pitched based musical clefs that result from the varied positioning of these three symbols.  They are: French violin, treble, soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass and sub bass clef.  

Out of these, the four most common clefs are treble, alto, tenor and bass clef. 

                

            Some musical notation will place an italicized 8 at the bottom of a treble or bass clef.  This symbol is used to shift the range of the normal treble or bass clef to a different register.  When an 8 is attached to a treble clef, it stands for the musical term “all’ ottava” or “at the octave.”  This means that the staff is representing the pitches of a standard treble clef that has been shifted one octave higher.  When an 8 is attached to a bass clef, it stands for the musical term “ottava bassa” or “at the octave below.”  This means that the staff is representing the pitches of a standard bass clef that has been shifted one octave lower.

           

            There is one additional clef that exists in music.  The percussion family of instruments includes several instruments that are non-pitched in nature.  These instruments can only play rhythmic values, and cannot replicate measured musical variations in pitch.  For this reason, some musical notation choose to use a percussion clef when composing for these types of instruments.  This clef consists of two parallel vertical lines that extend from the second to the third line of the staff.  These two lines cross over, and are perpendicular to the third line of the staff.  The purpose of this clef is to express the fact that no musical pitches have been assigned to the given staff.  Different lines and spaces may still be used to distinguish between multiple non-pitched percussion instrumental parts that are being written on the same staff, but this is in no way a reflection of pitch.    

            This Learning Music With Ray video discusses the topic of the musical staff and clefs.  In this video I discuss the composition and purpose of a musical staff.  I also discuss the use of musical clefs to identify the specific pitches represented by a given clef.  I illustrate and explain the three basic types of pitched clef symbols and the various musical clefs that they are used to create.  Finally, I discuss the concept of non-pitched percussion instruments, and the use of the percussion clef when creating musical notation for these types of instruments.     

Species Counterpoint (part 7 – Fifth Species)

        Fifth species counterpoint is a style of polyphonic writing that consists of any combination of the first four species.  Beside remembering and applying the past rules, the main concern is to compose a well formed melodic line that is singable (since counterpoint was originally an art of composing vocal music).  Due to this combined nature of fifth species, the primary method for studying the rules of this species is to study the rules of the first four species (which we have already done).  After this, the only other effective method for studying fifth species counterpoint is to practice composing it.

There are a few other considerations to consider before composing fifth species counterpoint.  One consideration is the fact that ties across the bar are a desirable element to include at times, since the resulting suspensions and oblique motion add beauty to the harmony.  Another is the fact that most composers avoid having two quarter notes followed by a half note in a measure of counter point.  The rhythmic flow of this phrase is considered to jarring (move then stop).  More desirable options are to have four quarter notes, or two quarter notes followed by a half note that is tied to the downbeat of the next measure.

This Learning Music With Ray video discusses the topic of fifth species counterpoint.  In this video I discuss the rules that govern composing a work of fifth species counterpoint.  I also provide some helpful tips that will make your experience composing fifth species counterpoint easier.  Finally, I compose a line of fifth species counter point both above and below a cantus firmus in order to provide a live demonstration of the principles discussed in the video.      

Species Counterpoint (part 6 – Fourth Species)

              Fourth species counterpoint is a style of polyphonic writing that consists of two notes of counterpoint against every one note of the cantus firmus (like second species).  However, in fourth species the counterpoint must always start on the upbeat, which is tied to the next downbeat as often as possible.  The primary rhythmic objective is syncopation between the counterpoint and the cantus firmus.  The repeated rhythmic syncopation due to ties across the bar line result in a constant state of suspension and resolution.

Since the upbeat of each measure acts as a resolution of the suspension, it must be consonant with the cantus firmus.  The suspended downbeat may be either consonant or dissonant with the cantus firmus.  If the suspended downbeat is dissonant with the cantus firmus, it must resolve down by a step. 

Above the Cantus Firmus:                            Below the Cantus Firmus:

-  2 to 1                                                     - 2 to 3

-  4 to 3                                                     - 4 to 5

-  7 to 6                                                     - 9 to 10

-  9 to 8

Below the cantus firmus, the 7th resolving to the 8th is avoided in the works of the great composers.

Works of fourth species will always resolve in a specific way.  If the counterpoint resolves to an octave, the penultimate measure will contain a 7th resolving to a 6th in relation to the cantus firmus.   If the counterpoint resolves to a unison, the penultimate measure will contain a 2nd resolving to a 3rd in relation to the cantus firmus.  The final pitch of the counterpoint must match the rhythm of the cantus firmus (in our case, it will be a whole note).                

In cases where continuing the sequence of ties would cause an undesirable compositional result, the sequence can be broken using regular half notes.  In such cases, the sequence of tied rhythms should be resumed as soon as possible.  Other than these differences that are specific to fourth species all of the past rules we have discussed still apply.

     

           Based on the rules and tips presented in this lesson, you should be prepared to compose your own third species counterpoint exercises.  For more guidance, please refer to the end of the accompanying video where I compose an example of first species counterpoint both above and below a cantus firmus.  Continued practice will grant you valuable insight into the nature of melodic motion and the way multiple melodies react harmonically.    

This Learning Music With Ray video discusses the topic of fourth species counterpoint.  In this video I discuss the rules that govern composing a work of fourth species counterpoint.  I also provide some helpful tips that will make your experience composing fourth species counterpoint easier.  Finally, I compose a line of fourth species counter point both above and below a cantus firmus in order to provide a live demonstration of the principles discussed in the video.   

    

Species Counterpoint (part 5 – Third Species)

Third species counterpoint is a style of polyphonic writing that consists of four notes of counterpoint against every one note of the cantus firmus.  This means that each measure consists of four equal parts.  This is usually depicted as four quarter notes of counterpoint set against each whole note of the cantus firmus.  Like second species, third species also allows for the existence of dissonance between the cantus firmus and the counterpoint.

The first quarter note exists on the downbeat of the measure.  Because of this, it must be consonant with the cantus firmus.  The second and fourth notes may be dissonant with the cantus firmus if we both approach and leave them by stepwise motion; and the first, third and fifth (1st of the next measure) notes in the sequence are consonant with the cantus firmus.  The third beat may be dissonant with the cantus firmus by way of diminution.  In this case the second and fourth notes are always consonant with the cantus firmus. 

Works of third species counterpoint will always resolve in a specific way.  If the counterpoint resolves to an octave, the penultimate measure will contain a 5th followed by a major 6th in relation to the cantus firmus in the third and fourth beats (except when the diatonic 5th is a tritone).  If the counterpoint resolves to a unison, the penultimate measure will contain a 5th, followed by a 4th and then a minor 3rd in relation to the cantus firmus in the second, third and fourth beats (except when the diatonic 5th is a tritone).  The final pitch of the counterpoint must match the rhythm of the cantus firmus (in our case, it will be a whole note).

There is one other exception to the normal rules of counterpoint that can occur in third species.  This exception is due to a type of musical phrase called a cambiata.  Cambiata is an Italian word meaning changed note.  In other types of musical composition, the specific parameters of a cambiata may vary.  In 3rd species counterpoint, this is specific type of melodic phrase containing a step, followed by a skip of a 3rd in the same direction and finally a step in the opposite direction (which fills in the skip).  In some cases, this type of phrase fits within the normal rules of counterpoint.  

In other cases, it breaks the rules.  This is allowed due to the melodic nature of the phrase.

The rules covered above reflect the differences between third species in comparison to everything else we have studied so far.  Other than these differences, all the other rules of first and second species counterpoint apply to third species counterpoint.  In addition, the same melodic rules for composing a good cantus firmus apply to composing a good work of second species counterpoint.  I would also recommend the same tips for composing that I gave in the lesson on first species.  For this reason, it is essential to study this topic in the proper sequence in order to gain a proper understanding.  If you have not done so already, please refer to the previous lessons on counterpoint (parts 1-4) to aid in your understand of this lesson.

Based on the rules and tips presented in this lesson, you should be prepared to compose your own third species counterpoint exercises.  For more guidance, please refer to the end of the accompanying video where I compose an example of first species counterpoint both above and below a cantus firmus.  Continued practice will grant you valuable insight into the nature of melodic motion and the way multiple melodies react harmonically.    

This Learning Music With Ray video discusses the topic of third species counterpoint.  In this video I discuss the rules that govern composing a work of third species counterpoint.  I also provide some helpful tips that will make your experience composing third species counterpoint easier.  Finally, I compose a line of third species counter point both above and below a cantus firmus in order to provide a live demonstration of the principles discussed in the video.      

Species Counterpoint (part 4 – Second Species)

Second species counterpoint can be composed in both binary and ternary meter.  In binary meter, second species counterpoint is a style of polyphonic writing that consists of two notes of counterpoint against every one note of the cantus firmus.  This means that each measure consists of two equal parts: the downbeat and the upbeat.  This is usually depicted as two half notes of counterpoint set against each whole note of the cantus firmus.  One of these half notes exists on the downbeat, and the other exists on the upbeat.  This allows for the existence of dissonance between the cantus firmus and the counterpoint in this species.

The first half note exists on the downbeat of the measure.  Because of this, it must be consonant with the cantus firmus.  The second half note exists on the upbeat.  Because of this, it may be dissonant with the cantus firmus if we both approach and leave it by stepwise motion.  If the upbeat is approached or left by a skip, the pitch must be consonant with the cantus firmus.  Thus, the only dissonance that can exist in this species is diminution.  Diminution is filling in the space between two notes that are a melodic third apart from each other.

Works of second species (binary meter) will always resolve in a specific way.  If the counterpoint resolves to an octave, the penultimate measure will contain a 5th followed by a major 6th in relation to the cantus firmus (except when the diatonic 5th is a tritone).  If the counterpoint resolves to a unison, the penultimate measure will contain a 5th followed by a minor 3rd in relation to the cantus firmus (except when the diatonic 5th is a tritone).  The final pitch of the counterpoint must match the rhythm of the cantus firmus (in our case, it will be a whole note).

         

There are several additional rules that must be observed when composing in second species.  One such rule is that successive strong beats may not contain parallel fifths or octaves unless the weak beat contains a leap of a 4th or greater.  Leaps of a third between successive strong beat parallelism are not substantial enough to erase the strong beat parallel motion from our tonal memory.  Another is that a half rest can be used in place of the first note.  In this case the upbeat pitch must be consonant with the cantus firmus.  Finally, a leap of a minor sixth or an octave may be used to avoid issues in a place where it is impossible to achieve contrary motion.

In ternary meter, second species counterpoint is a style of polyphonic writing that consists of three notes of counterpoint against every one note of the cantus firmus.  In this meter, the middle note may be dissonant if it is approached and left by stepwise motion.  Some music theorists also allow the third note to be dissonant if it is approached and left by stepwise motion.  However, Fux applied the strict approach of only allowing the middle note to be dissonant.  Other than these differences (due to the difference in meter), all the other rules of second species remain the same.

           

The rules covered above reflect the differences between second and first species counterpoint.  Other than these differences, all the other rules of first species counterpoint apply to second species counterpoint.  In addition, the same melodic rules for composing a good cantus firmus apply to composing a good work of second species counterpoint.  I would also recommend the same tips for composing that I gave in the lesson on first species.  For this reason, it is essential to study this topic in the proper sequence in order to gain a proper understanding.  If you have not done so already, please refer to the previous lessons on counterpoint (parts 1-3) to aid in your understand of this lesson.

Based on the rules and tips presented in this lesson, you should be prepared to compose your own second species counterpoint exercises.  For more guidance, please refer to the end of the accompanying video where I compose an example of second species counterpoint both in binary and ternary meter.  Continued practice will grant you valuable insight into the nature of melodic motion and the way multiple melodies react harmonically.    

This Learning Music With Ray video discusses the topic of second species counterpoint.  In this video I discuss the rules that govern composing a work of second species counterpoint.  I also provide some helpful tips that will make your experience composing second species counterpoint easier.  Finally, I compose a line of second species counter point both in binary and ternary meter in order to provide a live demonstration of the principles discussed in the video.      

Species Counterpoint (part 3 – First Species)

      First species counterpoint is a “note against note” style of polyphonic writing.  This means that each rhythmic value in the counterpoint matches the rhythmic values of the cantus firmus.  Since a cantus firms does not contain rhythmic variation, counterpoint in first species will also contain no rhythmic variation.  Since the rhythm of a work of first species counterpoint is identical to that of the cantus firmus, and neither melody contains rhythmic variation, this results in harmonic relationships that always arrive on strong beats.  Because of this, the harmonic relationship between each pitch of the cantus firmus and its corresponding pitch of counterpoint must be consonant.

                

      The same melodic rules for composing a good cantus firmus apply to composing a good work of counterpoint.  The two melodies should display melodic independence.  They should contain independent climaxes, independent melodic contours and no voice crossing.

Sequences should be avoided in first species counterpoint.  Although sequences and patterns play a large role in most forms of musical composition and improvisation, a primary part of their musical function is to flesh out an idea across a larger piece of music.  Counterpoint is a small and concentrated piece of music.  When composing such a piece of music, the entire piece should represent one independent melodic phrase. 

Some additional rules for first species counterpoint include the fact that the resolution should be reached by contrary stepwise motion.  The cantus firmus and counterpoint should be kept within a perfect 12th of each other.  Distances greater than this cause the harmonic connection between the two voices to become too weak.  Unisons should be avoided except for the first and last measures.  Unisons within the middle of the piece cause the second voice to seem to disappeared.    In addition to these rules, the basic rules of polyphonic motion that we discussed last week all apply.

When composing first species counterpoint, I suggest starting with the final cadence.  This interval must be either a unison or an octave.  Based on this choice, and the way the cantus firmus resolves, there will be only one solution for the pitch in the second to last measure of your counterpoint.  Now you have a target to aim for in your resolution. 

Next I would suggest considering which pitch you will start on, and where your climax will be.  Once these important points of the composition have been established, the rest of the measures can be filled in.  Try to use contrary and oblique motion as much as possible since direct motion requires more care to avoid issues.  Also, try to use a majority of imperfect consonances, so that your counterpoint contains an abundance of rich harmony. 

Try to maintain a smooth melodic line.  Use mostly stepwise motion.  Fill in skips (especially ones larger than a 4^th) with stepwise motion in the opposite direction.  Avoid repetitive sequences.  Remember, you are composing a concise melodic phrase.  Also, avoid crossing over the cantus firmus.  If you are writing above the cantus, remain above for the entire melody (and if below, remain below). 

Voice exchange is a beautiful effect that can occurs when the pitches of two melodies move in contrary stepwise motion in a fashion that causes the original pitches to exchange parts at the end.  This occurs most often in first species counterpoint between imperfect consonances.  Remember, imperfect consonances are the most desirable harmonic intervals in counterpoint.  Plus, voice exchange between imperfect consonances occurs after only two steps of contrary. 

Based on the rules and tips presented in this lesson, you should be prepared to compose your own first species counterpoint exercises.  For more guidance, please refer to the end of the accompanying video where I compose an example of first species counterpoint both above and below a cantus firmus.  Continued practice will grant you valuable insight into the nature of melodic motion and the way multiple melodies react harmonically.    

This Learning Music With Ray video discusses the topic of first species counterpoint.  In this video I discuss the rules that govern composing a work of first species counterpoint.  I also provide some helpful tips that will make your experience composing first species counterpoint easier.  Finally, I compose a line of first species counter point both above and below a cantus firmus in order to provide a live demonstration of the principles discussed in the video.   

  

Species Counterpoint (part 2 – Rules of Polyphonic Motion)

        Before studying the specific rules of each species of counterpoint, there are some basic principles of polyphonic motion that we should understand.  The first concept among these principals is the fact that there are three types of polyphonic motion.  They are direct motion, contrary motion and oblique motion. 

        Direct motion consists of two or more parts moving in the same direction (ascending or descending) by step or skip.  Whether the parts move in equivalent intervals (all steps, all skips, equal distances) is irrelevant.  The only relevant factor to qualify polyphonic motion as direct is that the parts move in the same direction. 

  

      Contrary motion consists of two parts moving in opposite directions (ascending and descending) by step or skip.  Again the interval of movement is irrelevant since the classification of contrary motion is only contingent on the direction of the motion.  This type of polyphonic motion can only occur between two parts since there are only two directions of motion (ascending or descending).  A third part would have to duplicate one of these two types of motion, and thus be an example of direct motion with that part. 

        Oblique motion consists of one part moving (by step or skip) while the other part remains stationary.  The stationary part could be a single pitch with a rhythmic value that is longer than the pitches of the moving part, or it could be repeated rhythmic occurrences of the same pitch.  As we will discuss in future lessons, the rhythmic value of a piece of counterpoint may vary from that of the cantus firmus only in certain species. 

        Now that we understand the three possible types of polyphonic motion, we can discuss the four fundamental rules of polyphonic motion.  They are listed below:

1. From one perfect consonance to another perfect consonance one must proceed in contrary or oblique motion.
2. From a perfect consonance to an imperfect consonance one may proceed in any of the three motions.
3. From an imperfect consonance to a perfect consonance on must proceed in contrary or oblique motion.
4. From one imperfect consonance to another imperfect consonance one may proceed in any of the three motions.

These four rules can be boiled down to two basic principles.  When we are traveling to an imperfect consonance, we may use any type of polyphonic motion.  However, when we are traveling to a perfect consonance, we must avoid direct motion.      

        As a result of these rules, composers find it more desirable to utilize imperfect consonances in their polyphonic writing.  This results in less restriction on the types of motion that they can employ.  In addition, imperfect consonances are perceived to be more harmonious than perfect consonances.  The pure quality of perfect consonances cause them to sound hollow or empty.  The impure quality of imperfect consonances cause them to sound rich and full.    Therefore, the majority of harmonic consonances within a polyphonic work should be imperfect otherwise the work will seem to lack harmony. 

       However, a work of counterpoint must start and end with a perfect harmonic consonance in relation to the cantus firmus.  To be more specific, all works of counterpoint must end with either a unison or octave.  In addition, any work of counterpoint that is composed below the cantus firmus must begin with a unison or octave.  Works of counterpoint composed above the cantus firmus may also begin with a fifth. 

This cannot be done with counterpoint that is composed below the cantus firmus because a fifth below would result in an obscuring of the perceived key.  Another rule of polyphonic motion is that all counterpoint must remain in the same key as the cantus firmus.  A starting interval that is a fifth below the cantus firmus could be perceived as a Do – Sol relationship in which the counterpoint is starting on the tonic even though it is actually a Fa – Do relationship in which the cantus firmus is starting on the tonic.  This dilemma could obscure the perceived key of the polyphonic work, and is thus avoided. 

The perfect fourth is considered to be a consonant interval when examining two pitches outside of any other musical context.  Remember, the perfect fourth is an inversion of the perfect fifth, and is thus heard as a similar interval.  However, within various musical contexts the state of this interval is more complex.  The best way to understand consonance and dissonance in polyphonic music is to think of consonant intervals as stable in relation to the key, and dissonant intervals as unstable in relation to the key.  Therefore, any interval of a fourth that requires resolution is considered to be dissonant. 

Since the perfect fourth is and inversion of the perfect fifth, Do – Fa relationships can easily be misperceived as Sol – Do relationships (as discussed earlier).  Any polyphonic situation that obscures the identity of the key would be considered dissonant, and in need of resolution.  In works containing three or more voices, additional pitches may help to support the integrity of the key and cause an interval of a perfect fourth to be considered consonant.  However, in two part compositions the perceived dissonance of the perfect fourth would be unavoidable. 

Now that we have an understanding of the basic principles of polyphonic motion, we are better prepared to discuss the specific rules of each species of counterpoint.  In future lessons on each species, please review the principles of this lesson.  Once we apply these principles through the practice of polyphonic composition, they will become easier to understand and retain.   

       
         This Learning Music With Ray video gives an overview of the basic rules of polyphonic motion that govern all polyphonic composition. After gaining an understanding of these rules, one will be better prepared to study the specific rules of each species of counterpoint. The video starts by discussing the three types of polyphonic motion. I then cover the four fundamental rules of polyphonic motion. Next, I discuss the difference between perfect and imperfect consonance in polyphonic music. Finally, I go on to discuss other miscellaneous rules of polyphonic motion, and the dissonant nature of the perfect 4th in polyphonic music.